Marcus Borg Meeting Jesus Again for the First Time Summary
The Quest for the Historical Paul
James Tabor considers Biblical and external accounts of the campaigner
James Tabor June 23, 2021 57 Comments 64539 views
This article was originally published in Nov 2012 on Dr. James Tabor's popular Taborblog, a site that discusses and reports on "'All things biblical' from the Hebrew Bible to Early Christianity in the Roman Earth and Across." Bible History Daily republished the article with consent of the author. Visit Taborblog or scroll downward to read a brief bio of James Tabor.
What can we reliably know near Paul and how can we know information technology? As is the example with Jesus, this is not an piece of cake question. Historians have been involved in what has been called the "Quest for the Historical Jesus" for the past one hundred and seventy-five years, evaluating and sifting through our sources, trying to determine what nosotros can reliably say about him.[i] As it happens, the quest for the historical Paul began nearly simultaneously, inaugurated past the High german scholar Ferdinand Christian Baur.[ii] Baur put his finger squarely on the trouble: There are 4 dissimilar "Pauls" in the New Testament, non one, and each is quite distinct from the others. New Testament scholars today are generally agreed on this point.[iii]
Ferdinand Christian Baur (1792-1860)
Thirteen of the New Testament'south twenty-vii documents are letters with Paul's proper noun as the author, and a fourteenth, the book of Acts, is mainly devoted to the story of Paul's life and career—making up over half the total text.[iv] The problem is, these 14 texts fall into four distinct chronological tiers, giving us our four "Pauls":
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1) Accurate or Early Paul: 1 Thessalonians, Galatians, ane and 2 Corinthians, Romans, Philippians, and Philemon (50s-60s A.D.)
two) Disputed Paul or Deutero-Pauline: 2 Thessalonians, Ephesians, Colossians (80-100 A.D.)
3) Pseudo–Paul or the Pastorals: one and two Timothy, Titus (lxxx-100 A.D.)
4) Tendentious or Legendary Paul: Acts of the Apostles (90-130 A.D.)
Though scholars differ equally to what historical utilize i might properly brand of tiers two, 3, or 4, there is almost universal agreement that a proper historical report of Paul should brainstorm with the seven genuine letters, restricting one's analysis to what is most certainly coming from Paul'due south own hand. This approach might audio restrictive but it is really the only proper way to begin. The Deutero-Pauline letters, and the Pastorals reverberate a vocabulary, a development of ideas, and a social setting that belong to a later time.[five] Nosotros are not getting Paul as he was, merely Paul'due south name used to lend authorization to the ideas of later authors who intend for readers to believe they come from Paul. In modern parlance nosotros phone call such writings forgeries, but a more polite bookish term is pseudonymous, meaning "falsely named."
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Those more inclined to view this activity in a positive light indicate to a grouping of followers of Paul, some decades later his decease, who wanted to honor him by continuing his legacy and using his name to defend views with which they assumed he would have surely agreed. A less charitable judgment is that these messages represent an attempt to deceive gullible readers past authors intent on passing on their own views equally having the authority of Paul. Either way, this enterprise of writing messages in Paul's proper name has been enormously influential, since Paul became such a towering figure of dominance in the church building.
The Pastorals (1 and 2 Timothy and Titus) are not included in our earliest extant collection of Paul's letters, the so-called Chester Beatty papyrus, that dates to the third century A.D.[vi] Paul's apocalyptic urgency, so dominant in the before messages, is almost wholly absent in these later writings. Amid the Deutero-Pauline tier, 2 Thessalonians was specifically written to calm those who were claiming that the day of judgment was imminent—the very thing Paul constantly proclaimed (2 Thessalonians 2:1-3).
In tiers 2 and 3 the domestic roles of husbands, wives, children, widows, masters, and slaves are specified with a level of item uncharacteristic of Paul's advertizement hoc instructions in his earlier letters (Ephesians v:21-vi:9; Colossians 3:eighteen-4:one; 1 Timothy 5:one-16). Specific rules are prepare down for the qualifications and appointment of bishops and deacons in each congregation (one Timothy 3:i-thirteen; Titus 1:5-9). There is a strong emphasis on following tradition, respecting the governmental regime, treatment wealth, and maintaining a respectable social order (2 Thessalonians 2:xv; 3:vi-15; 1 Timothy ii: 1-4; 5:17-19; 6:6-ten; Titus three:i). The Pastorals, in particular, are essentially manuals for church officers, intended to enforce society and uniformity.
Some have argued that the passing of fourth dimension and the changing of circumstances might business relationship for the differences, but detailed studies of the commonly used vocabulary in Paul's undisputed letters, in contrast to the Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral letters, has settled the question for most scholars. I will make little utilize of these afterwards documents in trying to reconstruct the "historical Paul."
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The book of Acts, tier iv, presents a special trouble in that information technology offers fascinating biographical groundwork on Paul not found in his genuine letters as well as complete itineraries of his travels. The trouble, as I mentioned in the Introduction, is with its harmonizing theological agenda that stresses the cozy relationship Paul had with the Jerusalem leaders of the church and its over-idealized heroic portrait of Paul. Many historians are agreed that it merits the label "Use Sparingly with Extreme Caution." Equally a full general working method I take adopted the following three principles:
- Never accept annihilation in Acts over Paul'due south own business relationship in his vii genuine letters.
- Cautiously consider Acts if information technology agrees with Paul and i tin can notice no obvious biases.
- Consider the independent data Acts provides of interest but not of interpretive historical use.
This latter principle would include biographical information, the three accounts of Paul's conversion that the author provides, the various speeches of Paul, his itinerary, and other such details.[seven]
Before applying these principles here is a skeletal outline of Paul's bones biographical data drawn merely from his genuine letters that gives u.s.a. a solid identify to brainstorm. Here is what we most surely know:
• Paul calls himself a Hebrew or Israelite, stating that he was born a Jew and circumcised on the eighth day, of the Jewish tribe of Benjamin (Philippians 3:5-half-dozen; 2 Corinthians 11:22).
• He was once a fellow member of the sect of the Pharisees. He advanced in Judaism beyond many of his contemporaries, being extremely zealous for the traditions of his Jewish organized religion (Philippians 3:5; Galatians 1:14).
• He zealously persecuted the Jesus movement (Galatians 1:13; Philippians 3:six; 1 Corinthians xv:9).
• Former around A.D. 37 Paul had a visionary experience he describes equally "seeing" Jesus and received from him his Gospel message equally well as his call to exist an campaigner to the non-Jewish world (one Corinthians 9:two; Galatians 1:11-2:2).
• He made only iii trips to Jerusalem in the flow covered by his 18-carat messages; one 3 years after his apostolic call when he met Peter and James but none of the other apostles (around A.D. xl); the 2d fourteen years afterwards his phone call (A.D. 50) when he appeared formally before the entire Jerusalem leadership to account for his mission and Gospel message to the Gentiles (Galatians 2:ane-10), and a third where he was apparently arrested and sent under guard to Rome around A.D. 56 (Romans 15:25-29).
• Paul claimed to feel many revelations from Jesus, including straight voice communications, too every bit an extraordinary "ascension" into the highest level of heaven, entering Paradise, where he saw and heard "things unutterable" (2 Corinthians 12:ane-4).
• He had some blazon of physical disability that he was convinced had been sent by Satan to afflict him, simply immune by Christ, then he would not be overly proud of his extraordinary revelations (ii Corinthians 12:vii-x).
• He claimed to have worked miraculous signs, wonders, and mighty works that verified his status as an campaigner (two Corinthians 12:12).
• He was unmarried, at to the lowest degree during his career as an apostle (i Corinthians vii:eight, 15; 9:5; Philippians three:viii).[viii]
• He experienced numerous occasions of physical persecution and deprivation including beatings, existence stoned and left for dead, and shipwrecked (ane Corinthians iii:eleven-12; 2 Corinthians eleven:23-27).
• He worked as a manual laborer to back up himself on his travels (1 Corinthians four:12; 1 Thessalonians 2:nine; ane Corinthians nine:6, 12, 15).
• He was imprisoned, probably in Rome, in the early on 60s A.D. and refers to the possibility that he would be executed (Philippians ane:one-26).
This is certainly not all nosotros would want only it is all we have, and considering that we have non a single line written by Jesus or whatever of his Twelve apostles, having seven of Paul's genuine letters is a poverty of riches.[ix]
The book of Acts provides the post-obit independent biographical information not found in the seven genuine letters:
• Paul's Hebrew name was Saul and he was born in Tarsus, a urban center in the Roman province of Cilicia, in southern Asia Minor or present-day Turkey (Acts ix:11, 30; xi:25; 21:39; 22:iii)
• He came from a family of Pharisees and was educated in Jerusalem under the well-nigh famous Rabbi of the time, Gamaliel. He besides had a sis and a nephew that lived in Jerusalem in the 60s A.D. (Acts 22:3; 23:16)
• He was built-in a Roman citizen, which means his father also was a Roman citizen. (Acts 16:37; 22:27-28; 23:27)
• He had some official condition as a witness consenting to the death of Stephen, the first member of the Jesus movement executed later on Jesus (Acts vii:54-8:one). He received an official commission from the loftier priest in Jerusalem to travel to Damascus in Syria to arrest, imprison, and even have executed whatsoever members of the Jesus movement who had fled the city under persecution. Information technology was on the route to Damascus that he had his dramatic heavenly vision of Jesus, who commissioned him as the apostle to the Gentiles. (Acts nine:1-19; 22:3-11; 26:12-18).
• He worked by trade as a "tentmaker," though the Greek word used probably refers a "leather worker" (Acts eighteen:three).
Then what should we make of this textile from the book of Acts?
That Paul'southward Hebrew proper name was Saul we take no reason to doubt, or that he was from Tarsus in Cilicia, though he never mentions this in his messages. Paul says he is of the tribe of Benjamin, and Saul, the first king of Israel, was likewise a Benjaminite, so ane could see why a Jewish family would choose this particular name for a favored son (1 Samuel 9:21). Since Paul reports that he regularly did manual labor to back up himself, and Jewish sons were normally taught some trade to supplement their studies, information technology is possible he was trained as a leather-worker. At that place is an early rabbinic saying that "He who does not teach his son a trade teaches him banditry."[ten]
Whether Paul was born in Tarsus one has to doubt since Jerome, the quaternary century Christian writer, knew a different tradition. He says that Paul's parents were from Gischala, in Galilee, a Jewish boondocks nearly twenty-five miles north of Nazareth, and that Paul was born there.[xi] Co-ordinate to Jerome, when revolts broke out throughout Galilee following the death of Herod the Swell in 4 B.C., Paul and his parents were rounded up and sent to Tarsus in Cilicia as part of a massive exile of the Jewish population by the Romans to rid the area of further potential trouble. Since Jerome certainly knew Paul's merits, according to the volume of Acts, to have been born in Tarsus, information technology is very unlikely he would take contradicted that source without skillful evidence. Jerome's business relationship besides provides united states with the only indication we have as to Paul's approximate age. Like Jesus, he would take had to have been built-in before four B.C., though how many years earlier we cannot say. This fits rather nicely with Paul's argument in one of his terminal letters to a Christian named Philemon, written around A.D. threescore, where he refers to himself as a "old human" (Greek presbytes), a discussion that implies someone who is in his 60s.[xii]
Jerome's account casts serious doubt on the claim in Acts that Paul was born a Roman citizen. We take to question whether a native Galilean family, exiled from Gischala as a result of anti-Roman uprisings in the area, would have had Roman citizenship. We know that Gischala was a hotbed of revolutionary activity and John of Gischala was 1 of the most prominent leaders in the get-go Judean Revolt against Rome (A.D. 66-70).[thirteen] Paul also says that he was "beaten three times with rods" (2 Corinthians 11:25). This is a punishment administered past the Romans and was forbidden to 1 who had citizenship.[fourteen] The earliest document we have from Paul is his letter 1 Thessalonians. It is intensely apocalyptic, with its entire orientation on preparing his grouping for the imminent arrival of Jesus in the clouds of heaven (1 Thessalonians 1:10; 2:19; 3:thirteen; 4:thirteen-xviii; 5:1-5, 23). Ane might imagine Paul the former Pharisee with no apocalyptic orientation whatever, but information technology is entirely possible, if Jerome is correct about his parents existence exiled from Galilee in an endeavor to pacify the area, that Paul'due south apocalyptic orientation was one he derived from his family and upbringing. Luke-Acts tends to mute whatever accent on an imminent arrival of the end and he characteristically tones down the apocalyptic themes of Marking, his primary narrative source for his Gospel.[xv]
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Acts is quite cracking on emphasizing Paul's friendly relations with Roman officials as well as the protection they regularly offered Paul from his Jewish enemies, so claiming that Paul was a Roman denizen, and putting his birth in a Roman Senatorial province like Cilicia, serves the author's purposes.
Acts's merits that Paul grew up in Jerusalem and was a personal educatee of the famous rabbi Gamaliel is likewise highly suspect. The book of Acts has an earlier scene, when the apostles Peter and John are arrested past the Jewish regime who are threatening to have them killed, in which Gamaliel stands up in the Sanhedrin court and speaks in their behalf, recommending their release (Acts v:33-39). The story is surely fictitious and is part of the writer'southward attempt to indicate to his Roman audience that reasonable minded Jews, similar noble Roman officials, did not condemn the Christians. It is likely that the author of Acts, in making Paul an honored student of Gamaliel, the near revered Pharisee of the day, is wanting to further advance this perspective. Throughout his business relationship he constantly characterizes the Jewish enemies of Paul every bit irrational and rabid, in contrast to those "practiced" Jews who are calm, reasonable, and respond favorably to Paul (Acts xiii:45; 18:12; 23:12).
Whether Paul even lived in Jerusalem earlier his visionary encounter with Christ could be questioned. In Acts it is a given, but Paul never indicates in any of his letters that Jerusalem was his home as a immature homo. He does mention twice a connection with Damascus, the uppercase of the Roman province of Syria (two Corinthians 11:32; Galatians one:17). Whether he was in Damacus, which is 150 miles northwest of Jerusalem, in pursuit of Jesus' followers, or for other reasons, nosotros have no sure way of knowing. The business relationship in Acts of Paul's conversion, repeated three times, that has Paul sent as an authorized delegate of the High Priest in Jerusalem to arrest Christians in Damascus, has so colored our assumptions about Paul that it is hard to focus on what nosotros discover in his letters.
Paul connexion to Jerusalem, or the lack thereof, has much to do with the frequently-discussed question of whether Paul would have ever seen or heard Jesus, or could he have been a witness to Jesus' crucifixion in A.D. thirty. Since he never mentions seeing Jesus in whatsoever of his letters, and one would expect that had he been an eyewitness to the events of that Passover calendar week he surely would have drawn upon such a bright experience, this argues confronting the idea that he was a Jerusalem resident at that time.
Too, Paul'south high placed connections to the Jewish priestly class in Jerusalem we can neither confirm nor deny. All he tells us is that he zealously persecuted the church of God and tried to destroy it (Galatians i:12). Some translations have used the English word "violently," but this is misleading and serves to reinforce the account in Acts that Paul was delivering people over to execution. The Greek word Paul uses (huperbole) means "excessively" or zealously. Nosotros take Paul'south word that he identified himself as a Pharisee, but in that location is nothing in his letters to signal the kind of prominent connections that the author of Acts gives him.
Outside the New Testament
Our primeval physical clarification of Paul comes from a late second-century Christian writing The Acts of Paul and Thecla. It is a wildly embellished and legendary account of Paul'south travels, his wondrously miraculous feats, and his formidable influence in persuading others to believe in Christ. The story centers on the beautiful and wealthy virgin Thecla, a girl so thoroughly mesmerized past Paul's preaching that she broke off her engagement to follow Paul and experienced many adventures. As Paul is kickoff introduced one of his disciples sees him coming downwards the road:
And he saw Paul coming, a man modest of stature, with a bald caput and crooked legs, in a good state of body, with eyebrows meeting and nose somewhat hooked, full of friendliness; for now he appeared like a man, and now he had the face of an angel.[xvi]
Nosotros have no reason to believe this business relationship is based on any historical recollection since the Acts of Paul as a whole shows no trace of earlier sources or historical reference points. The somewhat unflattering portrait well-nigh probable stemmed from allusions in Paul's letters to his "bodily presence" existence unimpressive and the subject of scorn, whereas his followers received him as an affections (2 Corinthians 10:10; Galatians 4:13-14).
Information technology might come up every bit a surprise, only outside our New Attestation records nosotros have very little additional historical data about Paul other than the valuable tradition that Jerome preserves for us that he was born in the Galilee. The early on Christian writers of the 2nd century (normally referred to equally the "Apostolic Fathers") mention his proper noun less than a dozen times, holding him up as an example of heroic faith, merely naught of historical involvement is related past any of them. For instance, Ignatius, the early second century bishop of Antioch writes:
For neither I nor anyone similar me can go along pace with the wisdom of the blessed and glorious Paul, who, when he was among you in the presence of the men of that time, accurately and reliably taught the word concerning the truth.[xvii]
Some of the 2nd and third century Christian writers know the tradition that both Peter and Paul ended up in Rome and were martyred during the reign of the emperor Nero—Paul was beheaded and Peter was crucified.[xviii] The counterfeit Acts of Peter, an extravagantly legendary business relationship dating to the third or 4th century A.D., explains that Peter insisted on being crucified upside-downward then every bit to show his unworthiness to die in the aforementioned manner every bit Jesus.[nineteen]
Ironically information technology seems that we moderns, using our tools of critical historical research, are in a better position than the Christians of the 2d and third centuries to recover a more authentic Paul.
Dr. James Tabor is Chair of the Department of Religious Studies at the University of North Carolina at Charlotte where he is professor of Christian origins and ancient Judaism. Since earning his Ph.D. at the University of Chicago in 1981, Tabor has combined his piece of work on ancient texts with extensive field work in archaeology in Israel and Jordan, including work at Qumran, Sepphoris, Masada and Wadi el-Yabis in Hashemite kingdom of jordan. Over the by decade he has teamed up with with Shimon Gibson to excavate the "John the Baptist" cave at Suba, the "Tomb of the Shroud" discovered in 2000, Mt Zion and, along with Rami Arav, he has been involved in the re-exploration of two tombs in East Talpiot including the controversial "Jesus tomb." Tabor's latest volume is Paul and Jesus: How the Apostle Transformed Christianity . You can find links to all of Dr. Tabor'south web pages, books and projects at jamestabor.com.
Notes
[i] The Quest was given both its history and its name by Albert Schweiter, whose groundbreaking book, published in 1906 with the nondescript German title, Von Reimarus zu Wrede (from Reimarus to Wrede), was given the more provocative title in English, The Quest of the Historical Jesus, translated by William Montgomery (London: Adam & Charles Black, 1910).
[two] The get-go of the modern Jesus Quest is commonly dated to around 1835 with the publication of David Strauss'south Life of Jesus. The total German title of Strauss'due south work, Das Leben Jesu kritisch bearbeitet (Tübingen: 1835-1836) was published in English as The Life of Jesus, Critically Examined (3 vols., London, 1846), translated by George Eliot, the penname of British novelist Mary Ann Evans. Baur'southward major piece of work, Paulus, der Apostel Jesu Christi, sein Leben und Wirken, seine Briefe und seine Lehre (Paul the Apostle of Jesus Christ: His Life and Works, His Letters and His Teaching) was published in1845. Strauss was a student of Baur at the Academy of Tübingen.
[iii] Most recently, Marcus Borg and John Dominic Crossan, The First Paul: Reclaiming the Radical Visionary Behind the Church building's Conservative Icon (New York: HarperOne, 2009). A more conservative, just however critical handling relying more on the letters of Paul than the book of Acts is that of Jerome Tater-O'Conner, Paul: A Critical Life (New York: Oxford University Printing, 1996).
[iv] An English copy of the New Attestation, Revised Standard Version, with text only and no notes or references, runs 284 pages total. The thirteen messages attributed to Paul, plus the book of Acts, add upwards to 109 pages of the total—just over 1-third.
[v] See Bart Ehrman'southward summary analysis "In the Wake of the Apostle: The Deutero-Pauline and Pastoral Epistles," in The New Testament: A Historical Introduction to the Early Christian Writings, 4thursday ed. (New York: Oxford University Press, 2008), pp. 272-394.
[vi] "Chester Beatty Papyri" in Anchor Bible Dictionary, Vol. 1 (New York: Doubleday, 1992), pp. 901-903.
[7] Not merely was the composition of such speeches common in Greek literary histories, information technology was expected. Thucydides, in his History of the Peloponnesian war, says that he composed speeches according to "what was called for in each situation" ( 1. 22. 2). Josephus, a gimmicky of the writer of Acts, is a prime instance; see Henry Cadbury, The Making of Luke-Acts (New York: Macmillan Company, 1927), and Arthur J. Droge and James D. Tabor, A Noble Expiry: Suicide and Martyrdom Among Christians and Jews in Artifact (New York: HarperCollins, 1992), pp. 53-112.
[viii] Information technology is possible that Paul was once married since he says he advanced within Judaism across his peers. Jewish men his historic period would ordinarily marry; not to marry would be considered aberrant. In his messages he speaks of the "loss of all things" and also refers to a situation where an "unbelieving wife" might leave one who has joined his motility, so it is possible he is alluding to his own personal state of affairs since he says the brother or sister, then abandoned, should non feel obligated to heed Jesus' teaching that there can be no divorce for any cause (Philippians three:7; ane Corinthians seven:12-16).
[ix] The letter of the alphabet of James and Jude might exist exceptions though many scholars question if these two brothers of Jesus were part of the Twelve and others questions the authenticity of the letters themselves. Few scholars consider the letters of 1 and 2 Peter equally written past Peter. 1 Peter, in particular, is surprisingly "Pauline" in tone and content and fits nothing we know of Peter based on more than reliable sources—including Paul'south genuine letters. The messages of John are not from John the fisherman, i of the Twelve, but from a later John, sometimes referred to as "John the Elder," who lived in Asia Minor (see Eusebius, Church History 3.39.4-7).
[x] Pirke Avot ii. 3.
[11] Jerome, De Virus Illustribus (PL 23, 646).
[xii] Meet Jerome Murphy-O'Conner, Paul: A Critical Life, pp. 1-5. The translation "administrator," found in the Revised Standard Version, is conjectural, with no manuscript back up. It assumes the misspelling of the Greek give-and-take "ambassador" (presbeutes), as "elder" (presbytes), but "elder" is the reading in all our manuscripts. The New Revised Standard Version and New Jerusalem Bible correctly have "elderberry."
[xiii] Josephus, Jewish War seven. 263-265. Josephus mentions John of Gischala ofttimes in his history of the revolt.
[14] Meet Digest 48. 6-7, a compendium of Roman law in The Assimilate of Justinian, ed. T. Mommsen, translated by A. Watson (Philadelphia: Pennsylvania Land University Press, 1985).
[xv] A comparison of Mark 13, sometimes called the "Synoptic Apocalypse," or the "Little Apocalypse," with Luke 21, which is the writer's rewriting of Mark, one sees how the "end of the age" is indefinitely extended and no longer tied to the Jewish-Roman war of A.D. 66-74.
[xvi] Translation by Wilhelm Schneemelcher in Edgar Hennecke's New Testament Apocrypha, edited by William Schneemelcher, translated by R. McL. Wilson, volume ii (Philadelphia: Westminster Press, 1965), pp. 353.
[xvii] Ignatius, Philippians three:2.
[xviii] See Eusebius, Church building History two. 14. v-6 and 3.i.2, who says he is relying on Origen, an early third century Christian theologian.
[xix] An expanded legendary account is establish in the apocryphal Acts of Peter 37-38.
Source: https://www.biblicalarchaeology.org/daily/people-cultures-in-the-bible/people-in-the-bible/the-quest-for-the-historical-paul/
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